וַיְדַבֵּ֣ר מֹשֶׁ֔ה אֶת־מֹעֲדֵ֖י יְהוָ֑ה אֶל־בְּנֵ֖י יִשְׂרָאֵֽל׃ (פ)
I wygłosił Mojżesz uroczystości Wiekuistego synom Israela.
Tur HaArokh
ויאמר משה אל בני ישראל, “Moses said to the Children of Israel, etc.” Rashi, basing himself on Rabbi Yishmael in the Sifri, justifies this verse by stating that whereas up until now the Torah had reported the words of G’d to Israel, the legislation introduced about vows could prove confusing as the pronoun endings in the words לבד מנדריכם, “except for your vows, etc.” in verse 29,39 could have been misunderstood in that Moses did not teach the legislation about the offerings on the festivals until each festival was about to occur. By making an interval before the legislation about vows in chapter thirty, it becomes clear that what was written before had already been revealed to the people by Moses. Nachmanides comments that he does not understand what Rashi had in mind. He quotes Leviticus 21,24 where at the conclusion of the chapter dealing with physical blemishes which disqualify a priest from offering sacrifices in the Temple, there is a similar verse to that we find here although one could not possibly justify that verse by the type of the reader’s confusion cited by Rabbi Yishmael in the Sifri, the subject at the beginning of chapter 22 being one that is totally different from that just concluded. Moreover, at the end of Leviticus, when Moses had concluded the legislation about the festivals, [excluding the sacrificial service on those days, Ed.] the Torah also inserts a verse signaling this conclusion when writing וידבר משה את מועדי ה' אל בני ישראל, “Moses informed the Children of Israel of the festivals of Hashem” (Leviticus 23,44). The subject matter commencing with chapter 24 there also does not allow for any confusion with what preceded it, and yet the Torah saw fit to insert an apparently superfluous verse. According to the plain meaning of the text, we have to understand that although in the most recently concluded chapter the role of Aaron and his sons, [the role of the priests, generally, Ed,] had not been spelled out, as opposed to the legislation about the festivals in the requisite chapters in Leviticus, and the words of Moses are reported as addressed “only” to “the Children of Israel,” this must not be misunderstood. Once the Children of Israel would take up residence in the Holy Land, some of them hundreds of kilometers from Jerusalem, they might think that the whole subject of sacrificial service on the festivals is one reserved for the priests. By stressing that Moses addressed the Children of Israel, ignoring the priests as people who are different, the Torah reminded the people at large that all of them had a vital role to play in making these festivals meaningful, the duty for the males to make a pilgrimage being only one part of this. Not only this, Moses did not even repeat the term מועדי ה'', “Hashem’s festivals,” which had been used so prominently in the relevant chapters in Leviticus. All of this was designed to impress the people that the legislation was relevant in the highest degree to the entire nation, to all its members. As to the Sifri, i.e. the Midrash of Rabbi Yishmael quoted by Rashi, the meaning of the word להפסיק, to establish a break in continuity, is that contrary to the principle of establishing conceptual linkages, based on two subjects in the Torah being written one adjoining the other, here we are not to apply the principle of דורשים סמוכים, of trying to make halachic parallels between such subjects. Personally, (Nachmanides speaking) what Rabbi Yishmael had in mind was that if the Torah had concluded the previous section with the line אלה תעשו לה' במועדיכם, (29,39) and had immediately commenced with וידבר משה אל ראשי המטות זה הדבר וגו', “Moses spoke to the heads of the various tribes: this is the thing that Hashem has commanded, etc.,” we would have construed the next chapter as being a continuation of the previous chapter, and would have assumed that the entire legislation about the public offerings to be presented in the Temple on the various festivals had been relayed by Moses to the heads of the tribes, for them in turn to relay it to the individual members of each tribe, instead of our knowing that the entire legislation had been communicated by Moses directly to the whole people.
Ramban
AND MOSES TOLD THE CHILDREN OF ISRAEL [ACCORDING TO ALL THAT THE ETERNAL COMMANDED MOSES]. “‘This is [stated] in order to separate the subject [of the offerings from that of the following chapter, dealing with vows and oaths].’ These are the words of Rabbi Yishmael. [The meaning thereof is as follows:] Since up till this point [we have] the words of G-d [to Moses],219See above, 28:1: And the Eternal spoke unto Moses, saying … and the [following] section of vows begins with the statement of Moses,220Further, Verse 2: And Moses spoke unto the heads of the tribes … it was necessary to separate the subject [of the offerings] by stating that Moses repeated it and told this section to Israel; for if this were not stated, one might have thought that he did not tell them this [section dealing with the offerings], but began his words with the section of vows.” These are the words of Rashi. But I do not understand them, for [we find] similarly that it says — at the end of the section [dealing with] blemishes [in priests], And Moses spoke unto Aaron, and to his sons, and unto all the children of Israel;221Leviticus 21:24. and it says at the end of the section of the festivals, And Moses declared unto the children of Israel the appointed seasons of the Eternal222Ibid., 23:44. [and in both these cases the subsequent chapters also begin with G-d’s utterance to Moses; so why was it necessary, according to Rashi, to separate here the sections by saying that Moses declared those laws to the children of Israel]!
But according to its plain meaning, the verse here comes to say that although this section deals with the laws of the offerings, G-d did not single out Aaron and his sons in connection with it, as in the sections of [the book] “the Law of the Priests” [i.e. the Book of Leviticus]. Instead Moses said it to all the children of Israel together, according to all that the Eternal commanded Moses, including the laws of refraining from work on the festivals,223Above, 28:18, 26. etc. and [the laws of] the Daily Whole-offerings, the Additional Offerings, the vow-offerings and the freewill offerings, for thus it was told to Moses, Command the children of Israel.224Ibid., Verse 2. And the reason [for this] is because this commandment applies after they enter the Land, and it is a commandment to all Israel to observe [the laws of] the Daily Whole-offerings and the Additional Offerings [of the Sabbath and festivals] in their appointed times, and to bring their vow-offerings and freewill offerings. Furthermore, the main intention of the commandment [to offer up offerings] is that these days should be remembered and kept,225Esther 9:28. and to refrain on them from all servile work [and therefore it was told to all the children of Israel]. Now this section is like the section of the festivals in “the Law of the Priests” [i.e. the Book of Leviticus]. For it says there at the beginning, Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them,226Leviticus 23:2. and at the end it says, And Moses declared unto the children of Israel the appointed seasons of the Eternal,222Ibid., 23:44. and here likewise at the beginning [of the section it says], Command the children of Israel, and say unto them224Ibid., Verse 2. and at the end [in the verse before us] it says, And Moses told the children of Israel according to all that the Eternal commanded. It did not mention [here in this verse that Moses told] “the appointed seasons of the Eternal,” because in this section here other matters are mentioned [as well] which do not apply to “the appointed seasons of the Eternal,” such as the Daily Whole-offerings of weekdays, and the Additional Offerings of the Sabbath and the New Moons.
The interpretation given by Rabbi Yishmael [quoted above by Rashi] is because Scripture never has to say of Moses that he told the children of Israel all that G-d commanded him, [because it is self-understood that he always did so], and it is not usual for the Torah to say so at each and every section. Therefore the Rabbis [similarly] explained227Torath Kohanim, Emor 3:12. the verse, “And Moses spoke unto Aaron, and to his sons, and unto all the children of Israel221Leviticus 21:24. — [as implying that] he warned Aaron about his sons [i.e., that Aaron as High Priest should preserve the sanctity of the Sanctuary, and prevent priests with a bodily blemish from performing the Divine Service], and [he warned] the sons concerning the Israelites [that they should prevent the Israelites from entering those parts of the Sanctuary which are forbidden to them], and [he warned] the Israelites about each other” [that they should each prevent the other from violating the sanctity of the Sanctuary]. And in the section of the festivals they explained [the verse, And Moses declared unto the children of Israel the appointed seasons of the Eternal]222Ibid., 23:44. in many ways. [Thus they said]:228Ibid., 17:12-13. “This teaches us that Moses used to tell Israel the laws of the Passover on Passover, the laws of Shavuoth [the Festival of Weeks] on Shavuoth, and the laws of Tabernacles on Tabernacles. [It further teaches us that] in the very language that he heard it [from G-d], he told it to Israel. And all the sections [mentioned here] are subject to the same law.229This means, as explained further, that just as fixing the days of the festivals [through the sanctification of the New Moon] can only be performed by a qualified court (see Vol. II, p. 116) so the adjudication of vows [mentioned in the following section] requires a court of qualified experts. Hence the statement: “All sections [mentioned here — namely the preceding one dealing with the festivals, and the following one treating of vows], are subject to the same law.” Rabbi Yosei the Galilean says: It states [and Moses declared unto the children of Israel] the appointed seasons of the Eternal,222Ibid., 23:44. but the Sabbath of Creation [i.e., the weekly Sabbath] was not said together with them.230This means that the Sabbath, unlike the festivals, does not require “sanctification” by the court, since its sanctity is permanent and endures forever, being based on its original sanctification by G-d at the creation of the world (Genesis 2:3). Ben Azai says: It is said, [And Moses declared unto the children of Israel] the appointed seasons of the Eternal,222Ibid., 23:44. but the section of vows was not said together with them [as will be explained further on]. Rabbi231This is Rabbi Yehudah Hanasi, the redactor of the Mishnah. Because of his great status, he is known simply as “Rabbi.” See also Vol. II, p. 349, Note 64. says: What does this verse — And Moses declared unto the children of Israel the appointed seasons of the Eternal222Ibid., 23:44. — come to tell us? Since [hitherto] we have only learnt that the Paschal-lamb and the Daily Whole-offering override the Sabbath [i.e., are brought on the Sabbath although they entail doing work which is normally forbidden], because it says about them in its appointed season232Above, 9:2 (Paschal-lamb). Ibid., 28:2 (Daily Whole-offering). [which includes even the Sabbath]; but we have not [yet] been taught that [the same applies to] the other public offerings. Therefore Scripture says: These ye shall offer unto the Eternal ‘in your appointed seasons’233Above, 29:39. thus indicating that all public offerings mentioned in this section of the Additional Offerings of the festivals, override the Sabbath. But we still do not know that the sheaf [of new barley brought on the second day of Passover], and the offerings brought with it,234Leviticus 23:12-13. and the two loaves [brought on the Festival of Shavuoth] and the offerings that come with them235Ibid., Verses 17-18. override the Sabbath, since they are not mentioned in this section of the offerings, and hence are not included in the phrase in your appointed seasons.233Above, 29:39. But when Scripture says [there], And Moses declared unto the children of Israel ‘the appointed seasons of the Eternal,’222Ibid., 23:44. it established ‘an appointed season’ for all [public offerings, so that they all override the Sabbath].” Thus far is the text of the Torath Kohanim.228Ibid., 17:12-13.
Now it is possible to say that the interpretation of Rabbi Yishmael who said that [the verse before us: And Moses told the children of Israel … is said] in order to separate the subject [of the offerings from that of the vows, as Rashi mentioned], is identical with that of Ben Azai, who said: “It says the appointed seasons of the Eternal,222Ibid., 23:44. but the section of vows was not said together with them,” meaning that the law of the festivals is not like the law of the section of vows, which was told to the heads of the tribes236Further, 30:2. in order to say that a single person who is expert [in the laws] can release a vow, and so can three ordinary people, for the festivals require the sanctification [of the New Moon] by a court of [at least] three experts, as is explained in [Tractate] Baba Bathra.237Baba Bathra 121a. Ben Azai thus derived this distinction between them [the festivals and vows] from the limiting phrase: [And Moses declared] the appointed seasons of the Eternal, and Rabbi Yishmael derived this [same] principle from the [apparent] redundancy of this verse [before us], and [hence he explained] that it only comes to separate the subject of the festivals from that of the vows. Thus both of them [Ben Azai and Rabbi Yishmael] are saying the same thing, differing only as to the text from which this law is derived.
The correct interpretation [of the words of Rabbi Yishmael who said that our verse comes only to separate the subjects] appears to me to be that he only intended to say [as follows]: Had He finished the section [here] of the festivals with [the verse]: These ye shall offer unto the Eternal in your appointed seasons,233Above, 29:39. and begun [immediately with the verse] And Moses spoke unto the heads of the tribes of the children of Israel, saying: This is the thing which the Eternal hath commanded,236Further, 30:2. it would have been possible [to explain] that the verse refers to the previous [subject], meaning that Moses spoke unto the heads of the tribes: “This is the thing which G-d commanded concerning the Daily Whole-offerings and the Additional Offerings” mentioned [previously], and the phrase unto the heads of the tribes would not be interpreted as referring to the following section of the vows. Therefore He divided [the subjects] and finished the section of the festivals [with the verse before us], And Moses told the children of Israel according to all that the Eternal commanded Moses, and then began the section of vows [with the statement] that Moses spoke unto the heads of the tribes, This is the thing that the Eternal hath commanded.236Further, 30:2. This is the truth, for such is the explanation of [the expression] “to separate the subject” in many places in the Sifra and Sifre. And Rashi himself has already mentioned238Further, 31:17. what the Rabbis have said in the Sifre:239Sifre, Matoth 157. “[Now therefore kill every male among the little ones,] ‘and kill’ [every woman that hath known man by lying with him].238Further, 31:17. Why is [the expression]and kill used [since it has already been said once at the beginning of the verse]? It is to separate the subject. These are the words of Rabbi Yishmael. For if I were to read [the verse without the repetition of the expression ‘and kill,’ namely]: ‘Now therefore kill every male among the little ones, and every woman that hath known man by lying with him. And all the women-children … [keep alive], I would not know what the verse is saying [about the women who have known man by lying with him — whether they are to be killed together with every male mentioned in the beginning of the verse, or to be kept alive together with all the women-children mentioned in the following verse]. Therefore it says [again], and kill, in order to separate the subject [from the following verse].’ These are the words of Rabbi Yishmael.” Similarly we find [such a usage of the expression “to separate the subject”] in other places in the Torath Kohanim [i.e., the Sifra].
Matoth
But according to its plain meaning, the verse here comes to say that although this section deals with the laws of the offerings, G-d did not single out Aaron and his sons in connection with it, as in the sections of [the book] “the Law of the Priests” [i.e. the Book of Leviticus]. Instead Moses said it to all the children of Israel together, according to all that the Eternal commanded Moses, including the laws of refraining from work on the festivals,223Above, 28:18, 26. etc. and [the laws of] the Daily Whole-offerings, the Additional Offerings, the vow-offerings and the freewill offerings, for thus it was told to Moses, Command the children of Israel.224Ibid., Verse 2. And the reason [for this] is because this commandment applies after they enter the Land, and it is a commandment to all Israel to observe [the laws of] the Daily Whole-offerings and the Additional Offerings [of the Sabbath and festivals] in their appointed times, and to bring their vow-offerings and freewill offerings. Furthermore, the main intention of the commandment [to offer up offerings] is that these days should be remembered and kept,225Esther 9:28. and to refrain on them from all servile work [and therefore it was told to all the children of Israel]. Now this section is like the section of the festivals in “the Law of the Priests” [i.e. the Book of Leviticus]. For it says there at the beginning, Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them,226Leviticus 23:2. and at the end it says, And Moses declared unto the children of Israel the appointed seasons of the Eternal,222Ibid., 23:44. and here likewise at the beginning [of the section it says], Command the children of Israel, and say unto them224Ibid., Verse 2. and at the end [in the verse before us] it says, And Moses told the children of Israel according to all that the Eternal commanded. It did not mention [here in this verse that Moses told] “the appointed seasons of the Eternal,” because in this section here other matters are mentioned [as well] which do not apply to “the appointed seasons of the Eternal,” such as the Daily Whole-offerings of weekdays, and the Additional Offerings of the Sabbath and the New Moons.
The interpretation given by Rabbi Yishmael [quoted above by Rashi] is because Scripture never has to say of Moses that he told the children of Israel all that G-d commanded him, [because it is self-understood that he always did so], and it is not usual for the Torah to say so at each and every section. Therefore the Rabbis [similarly] explained227Torath Kohanim, Emor 3:12. the verse, “And Moses spoke unto Aaron, and to his sons, and unto all the children of Israel221Leviticus 21:24. — [as implying that] he warned Aaron about his sons [i.e., that Aaron as High Priest should preserve the sanctity of the Sanctuary, and prevent priests with a bodily blemish from performing the Divine Service], and [he warned] the sons concerning the Israelites [that they should prevent the Israelites from entering those parts of the Sanctuary which are forbidden to them], and [he warned] the Israelites about each other” [that they should each prevent the other from violating the sanctity of the Sanctuary]. And in the section of the festivals they explained [the verse, And Moses declared unto the children of Israel the appointed seasons of the Eternal]222Ibid., 23:44. in many ways. [Thus they said]:228Ibid., 17:12-13. “This teaches us that Moses used to tell Israel the laws of the Passover on Passover, the laws of Shavuoth [the Festival of Weeks] on Shavuoth, and the laws of Tabernacles on Tabernacles. [It further teaches us that] in the very language that he heard it [from G-d], he told it to Israel. And all the sections [mentioned here] are subject to the same law.229This means, as explained further, that just as fixing the days of the festivals [through the sanctification of the New Moon] can only be performed by a qualified court (see Vol. II, p. 116) so the adjudication of vows [mentioned in the following section] requires a court of qualified experts. Hence the statement: “All sections [mentioned here — namely the preceding one dealing with the festivals, and the following one treating of vows], are subject to the same law.” Rabbi Yosei the Galilean says: It states [and Moses declared unto the children of Israel] the appointed seasons of the Eternal,222Ibid., 23:44. but the Sabbath of Creation [i.e., the weekly Sabbath] was not said together with them.230This means that the Sabbath, unlike the festivals, does not require “sanctification” by the court, since its sanctity is permanent and endures forever, being based on its original sanctification by G-d at the creation of the world (Genesis 2:3). Ben Azai says: It is said, [And Moses declared unto the children of Israel] the appointed seasons of the Eternal,222Ibid., 23:44. but the section of vows was not said together with them [as will be explained further on]. Rabbi231This is Rabbi Yehudah Hanasi, the redactor of the Mishnah. Because of his great status, he is known simply as “Rabbi.” See also Vol. II, p. 349, Note 64. says: What does this verse — And Moses declared unto the children of Israel the appointed seasons of the Eternal222Ibid., 23:44. — come to tell us? Since [hitherto] we have only learnt that the Paschal-lamb and the Daily Whole-offering override the Sabbath [i.e., are brought on the Sabbath although they entail doing work which is normally forbidden], because it says about them in its appointed season232Above, 9:2 (Paschal-lamb). Ibid., 28:2 (Daily Whole-offering). [which includes even the Sabbath]; but we have not [yet] been taught that [the same applies to] the other public offerings. Therefore Scripture says: These ye shall offer unto the Eternal ‘in your appointed seasons’233Above, 29:39. thus indicating that all public offerings mentioned in this section of the Additional Offerings of the festivals, override the Sabbath. But we still do not know that the sheaf [of new barley brought on the second day of Passover], and the offerings brought with it,234Leviticus 23:12-13. and the two loaves [brought on the Festival of Shavuoth] and the offerings that come with them235Ibid., Verses 17-18. override the Sabbath, since they are not mentioned in this section of the offerings, and hence are not included in the phrase in your appointed seasons.233Above, 29:39. But when Scripture says [there], And Moses declared unto the children of Israel ‘the appointed seasons of the Eternal,’222Ibid., 23:44. it established ‘an appointed season’ for all [public offerings, so that they all override the Sabbath].” Thus far is the text of the Torath Kohanim.228Ibid., 17:12-13.
Now it is possible to say that the interpretation of Rabbi Yishmael who said that [the verse before us: And Moses told the children of Israel … is said] in order to separate the subject [of the offerings from that of the vows, as Rashi mentioned], is identical with that of Ben Azai, who said: “It says the appointed seasons of the Eternal,222Ibid., 23:44. but the section of vows was not said together with them,” meaning that the law of the festivals is not like the law of the section of vows, which was told to the heads of the tribes236Further, 30:2. in order to say that a single person who is expert [in the laws] can release a vow, and so can three ordinary people, for the festivals require the sanctification [of the New Moon] by a court of [at least] three experts, as is explained in [Tractate] Baba Bathra.237Baba Bathra 121a. Ben Azai thus derived this distinction between them [the festivals and vows] from the limiting phrase: [And Moses declared] the appointed seasons of the Eternal, and Rabbi Yishmael derived this [same] principle from the [apparent] redundancy of this verse [before us], and [hence he explained] that it only comes to separate the subject of the festivals from that of the vows. Thus both of them [Ben Azai and Rabbi Yishmael] are saying the same thing, differing only as to the text from which this law is derived.
The correct interpretation [of the words of Rabbi Yishmael who said that our verse comes only to separate the subjects] appears to me to be that he only intended to say [as follows]: Had He finished the section [here] of the festivals with [the verse]: These ye shall offer unto the Eternal in your appointed seasons,233Above, 29:39. and begun [immediately with the verse] And Moses spoke unto the heads of the tribes of the children of Israel, saying: This is the thing which the Eternal hath commanded,236Further, 30:2. it would have been possible [to explain] that the verse refers to the previous [subject], meaning that Moses spoke unto the heads of the tribes: “This is the thing which G-d commanded concerning the Daily Whole-offerings and the Additional Offerings” mentioned [previously], and the phrase unto the heads of the tribes would not be interpreted as referring to the following section of the vows. Therefore He divided [the subjects] and finished the section of the festivals [with the verse before us], And Moses told the children of Israel according to all that the Eternal commanded Moses, and then began the section of vows [with the statement] that Moses spoke unto the heads of the tribes, This is the thing that the Eternal hath commanded.236Further, 30:2. This is the truth, for such is the explanation of [the expression] “to separate the subject” in many places in the Sifra and Sifre. And Rashi himself has already mentioned238Further, 31:17. what the Rabbis have said in the Sifre:239Sifre, Matoth 157. “[Now therefore kill every male among the little ones,] ‘and kill’ [every woman that hath known man by lying with him].238Further, 31:17. Why is [the expression]and kill used [since it has already been said once at the beginning of the verse]? It is to separate the subject. These are the words of Rabbi Yishmael. For if I were to read [the verse without the repetition of the expression ‘and kill,’ namely]: ‘Now therefore kill every male among the little ones, and every woman that hath known man by lying with him. And all the women-children … [keep alive], I would not know what the verse is saying [about the women who have known man by lying with him — whether they are to be killed together with every male mentioned in the beginning of the verse, or to be kept alive together with all the women-children mentioned in the following verse]. Therefore it says [again], and kill, in order to separate the subject [from the following verse].’ These are the words of Rabbi Yishmael.” Similarly we find [such a usage of the expression “to separate the subject”] in other places in the Torath Kohanim [i.e., the Sifra].
Matoth
German Commentary
In der Reihe der Feste steht dasjenige, weichem unser Tractat gewidmet ist, an der Spitze. Die heilige Schrift nennt es nie anders als חג המצות, Fest der ungesäuerten Brote; die Bezeichnung פסח (nur ein einziges Mal — Ex. 34,25 — חג הפסח), von dem gleichnamigen Opfer übertragen, beschränkt sich dort auf die Feier, welche dieses Fest einleitet. In der Mischna dagegen ist dieselbe auf das ganze Fest ausgedehnt, dessen ursprünglichen Namen sie bereits völlig verdrängt hat. Die eigentliche Pesachfeier bestand wesentlich in dem Genusse des Ueberschreitungsopfers (פסח) nebst ungesäuertem Brot (מצה) und Bitterkraut (מרור) und in der Erzählung der geschichtlichen Ereignisse, in denen das Fest seinen Grund hat (הגדה). Später wurden Lobgesänge hinzugefügt und die Vorschrift, entsprechend dem vierfachen Gute, das uns der Auszug aus Egypten brachte (Freiheit, Rettung, Erlösung, Erwählung — Ex. 6, 6—7), nach einer gewissen Ordnung vier Becher Wein (Symbol der Freude) zu trinken. Diese Feier fand alljährlich in der Nacht zum 15. des ersten Monats (Nîsân) im Kreise der Familie statt, welche zu diesem Zwecke rechtzeitig ein Opferthier (Lamm oder Ziege) vorzubereiten hatte und für den Fall, dass dessen Fleischgewicht ihren Bedarf überstieg, sich mit anderen Familien zum gemeinsamen Festmahl vereinigen konnte. Das Thier wurde am Nachmittage des 14. Nisan in der Tempelhalle unter feierlichen Lobgesängen als Ueberschreitungsopfer geschlachtet, Blut und Fett am Altare dargebracht, das Fleisch zu Hause am Feuer gebraten und nach Anbruch der Nacht von den Theilnehmern verzehrt; bis zum Morgen durfte von demselben nichts übrig bleiben. Wer aus irgend welcher Veranlassung unterlassen hatte, am 14. des ersten Monats das Pesachopfer zu bereiten, konnte und musste ein solches am 14. des zweiten Monats (Ijar) darbringen und das gebratene Fleisch in der folgenden Nacht nebst מצה und מרור verzehren (פסח שני, zweite Pesachfeier). Während der ganzen Dauer des siebentägigen (ausserhalb des heiligen Landes achttägigen) Festes ist der Genuss und selbst die Nutzniessung, ja sogar der Besitz von Châmêsz verboten. Unter Châmêsz (חמץ) versteht man Getreidestoffe (Körner, Schrot, Mehl, Kleie von Weizen, Roggen, Gerste, Hafer oder Dinkel , in denen durch Berührung mit Wasser oder einer wasserhaltigen Flüssigkeit eine Gährung hervorgerufen wurde. Da die ungesäuerten Brote aus Getreidemehl mit Wasser bereitet werden müssen, so ist bei ihrer Herstellung das Hauptaugenmerk darauf zu richten, dass die nothwendigen Arbeiten thunlichst beschleunigt und, noch ehe im Teig ein Gährungsprozess sich entwickeln konnte, zu Ende geführt werden. — Seinem vollen Umfange nach erlangt das Chameszverbot erst mit dem Beginn des Festes, also mit Anbruch der dem 15. Nisan vorangehenden Nacht seine Geltung. Die Pflicht aber, alles Chamesz aus dem Hause zu schaffen, tritt gleichzeitig mit dem Verbote des Genusses und der Nutzniessung schon am Mittage des 14. Nisan in Kraft. Gemäss einer vorbeugenden Anordnung der Rabbinen darf indessen eine Stunde vorher kein Nutzen mehr aus Chamesz gezogen und zwei Stunden vorher keines mehr gegessen werden. Der Begriff einer Stunde, wie ihn die Alten auffassten, deckt sich aber nicht ganz mit der Vorstellung, welche wir mit diesem Worte verbinden. Wie die meisten Völker des Alterthums, insbesondere die Babylonier und Egypter, die Griechen und Römer, unterschieden auch die Juden zwischen astronomischer und bürgerlicher Zeit. In der Lehre vom Kalender z. B. entspricht eine Stunde der Zeit, welche die Sonne braucht, um auf der Bahn, die sie täglich um die Erde beschreibt, einen Weg von 15 Grad zurückzulegen (Gradstunde); im bürgerlichen Leben dagegen ist die Stunde der zwölfte Theil des Zeitraumes, in welchem die Sonne ihren Tag- bezw. Nachtbogen vollendet (Bogenstunde). Je grösser der Tagbogen, je länger also die Sonne über unserm Horizonte steht, desto grösser die Bogenstunde am Tage und desto kleiner in der Nacht. Niemals sind nach bürgerlicher Zeit die Stunden des einen Tages denen des folgenden oder des vorhergehenden vollkommen gleich, und nur zweimal im Jahre, in den Aequinoctien, fallen die Bogenstunden mit den Gradstunden zusammen. An diesen beiden Tagen sind die Tagesstunden genau so gross wie die Stunden der Nacht; an allen übrigen Tagen des Jahres sind jene entweder grösser (im Sommerhalbjahre) oder kleiner (im Wintersemester) als diese. Wegen dieser Abhängigkeit von der Jahreszeit heissen in der jüd. Literatur die Stunden, die wir auf gut Glück Bogenstunden genannt haben, nach dem Griechischen (ὥραι ϰαιριϰαί) זמניות שעות; die von uns mit dem Namen Gradstunden belegten heissen daselbt entsprechend der lat. und der gr. Bezeichnung (horae aequinoctiales, ὥραι ἰσημεριναί) שעות השווי (spr. haschiwwûj), weil sie jahraus jahrein genau denselben Zeitraum umfassen, welchen sie in den Tagundnachtgleichen mit den von der Jahreszeit abhängenden gemein haben. Der Kalendertag beginnt wie bei den Atheniensern mit Anbruch der Nacht und mit diesem Zeitpunkte zugleich die erste Nachtstunde, mit Tagesanbruch hat die zwölfte Nachtstunde ihr Ende erreicht und die erste Tagesstunde ihren Anfang genommen. Wenn also in der Mischna z. B. von 8½ Uhr (wie am Anfang des 5. Kapitels) die Rede ist, so müssen wir darunter 2½ Uhr Nm. verstehen, sofern es sich um eine Tagesstunde in den Aequinoctien handelt, 3 Uhr 20 M. Nm., wenn an dem betreffenden Tage die Sonne um 4 Uhr auf- und um 8 Uhr untergeht, 1 Uhr 40 M. Nm, falls dieselbe nur von 8 bis 4 Uhr über unserm Horizonte weilt. Die Grösse des Tagbogens hängt bekanntlich nicht allein von der Jahreszeit ab, sondern auch von der Breite, unter welcher ein Ort liegt, und von der Neigung, welche die Erdbahn in einem gegebenen Zeitabschnitt zum Aequator hat. In den gemässigten Zonen sind im Sommer die Tage und im Winter die Nächte erheblich länger als in der Nähe des Aequators, gegenwärtig um eine Kleinigkeit kürzer als vor 1000 Jahren. Die Schiefe der Ekliptik unterliegt nämlich periodischen Schwankungen. Seit 4 Jahrtausenden ist sie in fortwährender, jedoch ungleichmässiger Abnahme begriffen, die sich jetzt auf 29′″ jährlich, durchschnittlich aber in je 100 Jahren auf 43″ beläuft. Heute misst die Schiefe 23° 27′ 14″, zur Zeit des Abschlusses der Mischna betrug sie 23° 40′ 30″. Bezeichnet man diesen Winkel mit ε und die Breite mit β, so lautet die Formel für die Berechnung des halben Tagbogens am kürzesten Tage des Jahres:
*). Für die heilige Stadt, welche unter 31° 47′ nördl. Breite liegt, wäre demnach der Werth von φ gegenwärtig (log tg β = 9,7921280, log tg ε = 9,6373454) 148° 48′ 40″ und beim Abschluss der Mischna (log tg. ε = 9,6419191) 148° 28′ 20″, mithin der grösste Tagbogen (360° — φ) = 211° 11′ 20″ bzw. = 211° 31′ 40″. Vertheilt man die Differenz zwischen dem grössten und kleinsten Tagbogen gleichmässig auf die Zwischenzeit, so kann man für jeden beliebigen Zeitpunkt die Tagesdauer annähernd bestimmen; zu einem genauen Ergebnis gelangt man auf diesem Wege nicht, weil der Lauf der Erde kein gleichmässiger ist (sie bewegt sich im Perihel rascher fort als im Aphel), und weil die Zunahme der Tages- bzw. Nachtlänge um die Solstitien geringer ist als um die Aequinoctien. Der Stoff, den unser Tractat behandelt, ist sozusagen chronologisch geordnet. Das erste Kapitel beginnt mit der Nacht vom 13. zum 14. Nisan, in welcher alle Räume beim Scheine eines Lichtchens nach Chamesz durchsucht werden müssen. Im Anschluss hieran werden bis zum Ende des 3. Kapitels die Vorschriften über Chamesz erledigt. Das 4. Kapitel handelt vom 14. Nisan, dem Rüsttage des Festes, an welchem die Sitte mancher Gegenden die Einstellung aller Erwerbsthätigkeit verlangte, und führt bei dieser Gelegenheit eine Reihe anderer Vorschriften auf, deren Verbindlichkeit gleichfalls vom Ortsgebrauch abhängig ist. Der Nachmittag des genannten Tages ist die Zeit der Darbringung des Pesachopfers, welchem die 4 folgenden Kapitel gewidmet sind. K. IX ererörtert hierauf die Vorschriften des zweiten Pesach. K. X endlich beschreibt die häusliche Feier in der Nacht zum 15. Nisan.—Zum Schluss noch einige Worte über den Namen unserer Massichta. Da derselbe kein Appellativ ist wie z. B. שקלים עירובין u. a. (der Tractat handelt ja nicht blos vom Pesachopfer!), sondern wie ראש השנה ,שבת oder יום הכפורים der Eigenname eines Festes ist, und dieses פסח heisst, so sollte unser Tractat den Titel מסכת פסח führen. (Wenn wir in unserer Ordnung Ueberschriftën wie סכה und מגלה finden, wo wiederum der Plural am Platze wäre, da beide Appellativa sind, der Name des Hüttenfestes aber gerade סכות lautet, so erklärt sich dies wie bei ביצה aus dem Worte, mit welchem diese Tractate beginnen; der Titel des 9. Tractates ist תעניות, wie es im Jeruschalmi richtig heisst, nicht תענית.) Heller rechtfertigt den Plural in Pesachim mit den zweierlei Pesachfesten, von denen die Rede ist. Allein der פסח שני ist kein Feiertag, sondern gleich dem פסח ראשון lediglich eine Festfeier; Pesachim beschäftigt sich aber nicht allein mit diesen beiden feierlichen Veranstaltungen, umfasst vielmehr das ganze siebentägige Fest. Die ebenfalls von Heller angeführte Zerlegung unserer Massichta in zwei Theile, deren erster — das Pesachfest behandelnd — פסח ראשון, deren zweiter — mit dem Pesachopfer sich befassend — פסח שני genannt wurde, gäbe eine treffliche Erklärung für den Gesammttitel פסחים, wenn nur diese Eintheilung genügend gerechtfertigt wäre. Sie ist aber nicht im Geringsten begründet. Vielmehr gehört zu den Satzungen des Pesachfestes auch, ja in erster Reihe das Pesachopfer. Vielleicht erklärt sich die Mehrzahl durch die ursprünglich appellative Bedeutung des Wortes. Obgleich die Bezeichnung פסח bereits als Eigennamen auf das Fest übertragen war, dachte man dabei zur Zeit der Namengebung noch immer zunächst an das Opfer, weshalb das Wort in den Plural gesetzt wurde. — Noch mehr aber als die Mehrzahl in Pesachim ist die Einzahl iu dem Namen der Ordnung befremdlich, zu welcher diese Massichta gehört. מועד bildet in dieser Beziehung unter allen sechs Ordnungen der Mischna die einzige Ausnahme, und ich wundere mich, dass Heller, dessen scharfem Auge dergleichen nicht zu entgehen pflegt, an dieser Schwierigkeit vorübergeht. Dieselbe ist um so auffallender, als wir auch einen Tractat מועד haben, dem man zum Unterschiede den Beinamen קטן beilegen musste. Das wäre überflüssig gewesen, wenn man die Ordnung מועדות genannt hätte. Vermuthlich wurde hier die Einzahl darum gewählt, weil man mit סדר מועדות die Lehre vom Kalender bezeichnete, wie aus Jeruschalmi ‘Erubin III 9 ersichtlich. Auch Onkelos scheint das Kalenderwesen im Auge zu haben, wenn er Lev. 23,44 מעדי mit סדר מועדיא übersetzt und ואלפנון hinzufügt.
Rashi
וידבר משה וגו׳ AND MOSES SPAKE [TO THE CHILDREN OF ISRAEL THAT THEY SHOULD KEEP THE PASSOVER] — Why is this stated at all? Has it not already been said, (Leviticus 23:44) “And Moses declared [unto the children of Israel] the appointed festivals of the Lord”? But the reason is: when he heard on Sinai the section dealing with the festivals he told it to them then and he used to exhort them again about the festivals at the time when they had to be observed (lit., at the time of action) (Sifrei Bamidbar 66).